The fermentation process is a crucial step in traditional brewing methods, playing a significant role in the development of various alcoholic beverages. Understanding this intricate and dynamic process is essential for brewers seeking to produce high-quality products with unique flavors and characteristics. In this article, we will delve into the intricacies of the fermentation process, exploring its underlying principles and how it contributes to the art of traditional brewing.
Consider, for example, the case of an artisanal brewery specializing in crafting Belgian-style beers. Through meticulous attention to detail and adherence to time-honored techniques, they aim to create complex and richly-flavored brews that reflect the traditions of their region. The fermentation process plays a central role in achieving these desired outcomes as it transforms simple sugars into alcohol through the action of yeast. By understanding the science behind this transformative process, brewers gain insight into manipulating temperature, yeast strains, and other factors to craft distinctive flavor profiles that are characteristic of their chosen beer style.
Temperature Control
To ensure a successful fermentation process in brewing, temperature control plays a pivotal role. Imagine this scenario: a brewer decides to produce a batch of beer using traditional methods. The ambient temperature during the initial stages of fermentation is higher than optimal, resulting in excessive yeast activity and an increased production of esters. As a result, the beer tastes fruity and has an overpowering aroma that masks its intended flavors.
Achieving the desired outcome requires precise temperature management throughout the entire fermentation process. This involves carefully controlling both the initial wort cooling phase and maintaining consistent temperatures during active fermentation.
When it comes to temperature control in brewing, several factors come into play:
- Fermentation Vessels: Different vessels have varying levels of insulation properties which can affect heat transfer rates.
- Ambient Temperature: External environmental conditions such as room temperature impact the ability to maintain stable internal temperatures.
- Cooling Methods: Various cooling techniques like immersion chillers or glycol jackets are employed to regulate temperatures effectively.
- Yeast Strains: Different yeast strains thrive at specific temperature ranges, affecting flavor profiles and overall fermentation performance.
In order to illustrate these concepts more clearly, consider the following table showcasing different cooling methods and their effectiveness in achieving accurate temperature control:
| Cooling Method | Efficiency | Ease of Use | Cost-effectiveness |
|---|---|---|---|
| Immersion Chiller | High | Moderate | Low |
| Glycol Jacket | Very High | High | High |
| Ice Bath | Moderate | Low | Moderate |
By employing appropriate cooling methods based on individual preferences and constraints, brewers can ensure optimum temperatures for successful fermentations. Understanding these various factors allows brewers to make informed decisions when selecting suitable equipment and implementing effective strategies for temperature control.
Transitioning seamlessly from our discussion on temperature control, let us now explore another critical aspect of the fermentation process: yeast selection.
Yeast Selection
Transitioning from the previous section on temperature control, let us now delve into the crucial step of yeast selection in the fermentation process. To illustrate its importance, let us consider a hypothetical scenario where two breweries use different strains of yeast for brewing their signature lagers.
Yeast selection plays a significant role in determining the flavor profile and characteristics of beer. Different strains of yeast offer unique flavors, aromas, and attenuation levels that contribute to the overall quality of the final product. Brewers carefully choose specific Yeast Strains to achieve desired outcomes and maintain consistency across batches. In our case study, Brewery A uses a traditional German Lager strain known for producing clean, crisp flavors with subtle fruity notes, while Brewery B opts for an American Ale yeast strain that imparts more pronounced hoppy and fruity esters.
When it comes to selecting yeast for brewing, brewers take several factors into consideration:
- Flavor Profile: Each yeast strain offers distinct flavor profiles that can range from malty and sweet to spicy or fruity.
- Attenuation Level: This indicates how much sugar the yeast consumes during fermentation. High attenuation results in drier beers with lower residual sweetness.
- Flocculation: Referring to how well the yeast settles at the bottom of the fermenter after fermentation is complete, this property influences clarity and ease of separation.
- Alcohol Tolerance: Some yeasts are better suited for higher alcohol content brews than others.
To gain further insight into these considerations, below is a table showcasing examples of popular yeast strains along with their corresponding attributes:
| Yeast Strain | Flavor Profile | Attenuation | Flocculation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Belgian Saison | Spicy & Fruity | Medium | Low |
| English Ale | Malty & Fruity | Medium | Medium |
| American Lager | Clean & Crisp | High | High |
| German Hefeweizen | Banana & Clove | Low | High |
By carefully selecting the appropriate yeast strain, brewers can craft beers that meet their desired flavor profiles and maintain consistency across batches. The choice of yeast is an integral part of traditional brewing practices and contributes to the diversity found in beer styles worldwide.
Transitioning into the subsequent section on fermentation vessels, let us now explore how this key equipment influences the fermentation process.
Fermentation Vessel
Now, let’s delve deeper into this crucial step and understand its significance. To illustrate, imagine a scenario where two different breweries used distinct strains of yeast to ferment their beers. Brewery A opted for a traditional ale yeast, known for imparting fruity esters and spicy notes, while Brewery B chose a lager yeast renowned for its clean and crisp flavor profile.
Yeast selection plays a pivotal role in determining the characteristics of the final product. Here are some key considerations when choosing the right strain:
- Flavor Profile: Different yeasts produce varying flavors during fermentation. Ale yeasts often contribute fruity or spicy aromas, while lagers tend to result in cleaner and more subdued flavors.
- Fermentation Temperature Range: Each yeast strain has an optimal temperature range for fermentation. It is essential to select a strain that thrives within your brewing conditions to ensure consistent results.
- Flocculation: Flocculation refers to how well yeast clumps together and settles at the bottom of the vessel after fermentation is complete. Some strains have high flocculation rates, making them ideal for clear beer production.
- Attenuation: Attenuation describes how much sugar the yeast consumes during fermentation. High attenuation results in drier beers with less residual sweetness, whereas low attenuation yields sweeter finishes.
To further highlight these factors, consider the following table comparing two popular yeast strains commonly used in craft brewing:
| Yeast Strain | Flavor Profile | Fermentation Temp (°C) | Flocculation | Attenuation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Saison | Fruity, Spicy | 20-24 | Medium | High |
| Hefeweizen | Banana, Clove | 18-22 | Low | Medium |
As you can see, the choice of yeast strain can significantly impact the beer’s flavor and aroma. Brewers carefully select their strains based on the desired outcome they wish to achieve.
Moving forward, we will now explore another crucial aspect of the fermentation process: the duration of fermentation. Understanding how long it takes for a beer to ferment is essential for brewers to ensure consistency and quality in their final product.
Duration of Fermentation
Having explored the significance of the fermentation vessel in traditional brewing, we now turn our attention to understanding the duration of fermentation. To illustrate this process further, let us consider a hypothetical example involving a batch of ale being brewed using traditional methods at a local microbrewery.
During the fermentation process, various factors influence the length of time required for optimal results. These factors include:
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Yeast Strain: Different yeast strains have varying rates of fermentation and tolerance levels for alcohol content. For instance, certain ale yeasts ferment at higher temperatures and complete their work more quickly than lager yeasts that require cooler conditions.
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Recipe Complexity: The composition of the recipe, including malt types and additional ingredients such as fruits or spices, can affect fermentation time. More complex recipes may require longer durations for flavors to develop fully.
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Desired Flavor Profile: Brewmasters carefully monitor the progress of fermentation to achieve their desired flavor profile. Some styles may benefit from shorter fermentation periods to retain some residual sweetness, while others might demand extended maturation times to enhance complexity.
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Environmental Factors: Ambient temperature plays a crucial role in determining how rapidly fermentation occurs. Microbreweries often maintain consistent temperature control throughout the process to ensure reliable outcomes.
Table – Factors Influencing Fermentation Duration:
| Factor | Influence on Duration |
|---|---|
| Yeast Strain | Varies based on strain’s characteristics |
| Recipe Complexity | Affects development and maturation |
| Desired Flavor | Dictates timing for achieving profiles |
| Environmental | Temperature affects rate |
Understanding these factors allows brewers to tailor their approach accordingly and fine-tune each batch’s timeline with precision.
Transition into subsequent section about “Gravity Readings”: Next, we delve into another essential aspect of monitoring the brewing process – gravity readings – which provide valuable insights into fermenting beer’s progress.
Gravity Readings
Duration of Fermentation and Its Importance
As we delve further into the intricacies of the fermentation process in traditional brewing, it is important to understand the duration of this crucial step. The length of time required for fermentation can vary depending on a multitude of factors, such as yeast strain, temperature, and desired flavor profile. To illustrate this point, let’s consider an example: a small craft brewery that specializes in Belgian-style beers.
In the case of our hypothetical brewery, they aim to produce a complex and fruity Belgian Tripel with notes of banana and clove. Achieving these flavors requires a longer fermentation period compared to other beer styles. This particular brewery allows their Tripel to ferment for approximately three weeks at a controlled temperature of 68°F (20°C). During this time, the yeast consumes sugars from malted barley and produces alcohol and carbon dioxide through its metabolic processes.
To better comprehend why certain beer styles necessitate longer periods of fermentation, let us explore some key reasons:
- Flavor development: Extended fermentation provides more time for yeast to metabolize various compounds present in wort, resulting in enhanced flavor complexity.
- Attenuation: Certain yeast strains take longer to fully consume all available sugars, leading to lower levels of residual sweetness in the finished product.
- Off-flavor elimination: Prolonged fermentation allows undesirable by-products produced during primary fermentation (such as sulfur compounds) enough time to dissipate or be reabsorbed by the yeast.
- Conditioning: After reaching final gravity (the specific density indicating complete sugar consumption), additional conditioning ensures that any remaining off-flavors are minimized while enhancing overall beer stability.
| Duration | Flavor Profile | Carbonation Level |
|---|---|---|
| Short | Light-bodied with subtle flavors | Lower carbonation |
| Medium | Moderate complexity and balanced flavors | Medium carbonation |
| Long | Rich, robust flavors with heightened nuances | Higher carbonation |
The duration of fermentation is a critical aspect of the brewing process. It directly influences the final flavor profile, as well as other sensory attributes that beer enthusiasts appreciate. Understanding why certain styles require longer fermentation periods can help brewers craft exceptional beers that showcase unique characteristics.
Transitioning seamlessly into our next section on the lagering process, we will now explore how this extended period of cold conditioning further refines and clarifies the beer before its final packaging.
Lagering Process
From tracking Gravity Readings, we now delve into the lagering process—the crucial step that brings out the true character and smoothness of a beer. Let’s explore how this stage contributes to the overall quality of traditional brewing.
Imagine a hypothetical scenario where a brewery has just completed the fermentation process for their signature lager. They carefully transfer the beer to secondary vessels for lagering, also known as cold storage. This extended period of maturation typically lasts several weeks or even months, allowing the flavors to harmonize and develop further complexity.
During lagering, various chemical reactions take place within the beer, resulting in distinct improvements to its taste profile. To better understand these changes, consider the following points:
- Enhanced Clarity: Cold temperatures encourage yeast particles and other sediment to settle at the bottom of the vessel, leading to an improved clarity in appearance.
- Smooth Texture: While fermenting at lower temperatures slows down activity, it facilitates a gentle carbonation process that results in a smoother mouthfeel.
- Subtle Flavor Development: As time progresses during Lagering, any harsh off-flavors produced during primary fermentation are gradually diminished while more desirable flavors emerge.
- Extended Shelf Life: The prolonged aging period helps stabilize the beer by reducing oxidation and preventing spoilage organisms from thriving.
To illustrate how different factors come together during lagering, let’s examine a comparison table highlighting two batches of lagers with varying durations of cold storage:
| Batch A (4 weeks) | Batch B (8 weeks) | |
|---|---|---|
| Appearance | Slightly hazy | Crystal clear |
| Mouthfeel | Moderately crisp | Silky smooth |
| Flavor | Mildly bitter | Well-balanced |
| Shelf Life | 3 months | 6-9 months |
As we can see from the table, lagering for a longer period enhances both the appearance and taste of the beer. This technique allows brewers to achieve a more refined product that satisfies discerning palates.
Transitioning into our subsequent section about mashing technique, we will explore how this crucial step in traditional brewing sets the foundation for extracting fermentable sugars from grains. Understanding the intricacies of mashing is essential to appreciating the complexity of flavors that emerge during fermentation.
(MASHING TECHNIQUE) In this next stage…
Mashing Technique
Transitioning from the previous section that discussed the lagering process, we now delve into another crucial step in traditional brewing – the mashing technique. To illustrate the significance of this process, let us consider a hypothetical scenario where a brewery aims to create a unique craft beer using an unconventional grain mixture.
Mashing is a critical stage in the fermentation process as it converts starches present in grains into fermentable sugars. By adjusting variables such as temperature and time during mashing, brewers can manipulate the enzymatic activity to achieve desired flavor profiles. For instance, our hypothetical brewery experiments with a blend of malted barley, rye, and oats for their new brew. Through careful control of temperature and duration during mashing, they aim to enhance both body and mouthfeel while bringing out subtle nutty and spicy notes from the rye.
To better understand the importance of proper mashing techniques, here are some key factors that significantly impact the outcome:
- Grain composition: Different types of grains have varying enzyme content and diastatic power (the ability to convert starches). Brewers need to select specific grain combinations based on their desired flavors and sugar conversion capabilities.
- Mash pH: Maintaining an optimal pH level ensures efficient enzyme function during mashing. A slightly acidic environment promotes enzymatic activity, leading to better conversion of starches into fermentable sugars.
- Water chemistry: The mineral composition of water used in mashing affects enzyme performance and impacts taste characteristics. Brewer’s salts or additives may be utilized to adjust water chemistry according to desired outcomes.
- Mash temperature profile: Careful manipulation of mash temperatures influences which enzymes are activated during different stages of mashing. This allows brewers to target specific sugar profiles and extract particular flavors from chosen grain varieties.
By carefully considering these factors during mashing, brewers can unlock an array of flavors and ensure consistent quality across batches. The table below provides a summary of the impact these variables have on the mashing process, evoking an emotional response and highlighting the intricacies involved in traditional brewing:
| Variable | Impact |
|---|---|
| Grain composition | Determines flavor and sugar conversion capabilities. |
| Mash pH | Influences enzymatic activity during mashing. |
| Water chemistry | Affects enzyme performance and taste characteristics. |
| Temperature profile | Targets specific sugar profiles and extracts desired flavors from grains. |
Transitioning into the subsequent section about “Wort Preparation,” it is evident that proper mashing techniques lay the foundation for a successful fermentation process. By meticulously controlling grain selection, mash pH, water chemistry, and temperature profiles, brewers can craft unique brews with distinct flavor profiles that appeal to their target audience’s preferences.
Wort Preparation
Section H2: Wort Preparation
After the mashing technique, the next crucial step in the Fermentation process is wort preparation. This involves extracting and processing the sugary liquid known as wort from the mashed grains. To illustrate this process, let us consider an example of a traditional brewery located in a small town.
In our hypothetical case study, Brewery X follows a meticulous approach to ensure high-quality wort production. Once the mash has been completed, they carefully transfer it into a lauter tun. Here, water is gradually added to rinse off residual sugars while separating them from the spent grain husks. The resulting liquid, called sweet wort, is then collected for further processing.
To achieve optimal fermentation conditions during wort preparation, breweries often focus on several key factors:
- temperature control: Maintaining precise temperature levels throughout the process ensures enzymatic activity and proper sugar extraction.
- Grain-to-Water Ratio: Striking an appropriate balance between grain volume and water helps maximize sugar extraction without excessive dilution.
- Duration of Lautering: Allowing sufficient time for lautering assists in obtaining clear wort free from unwanted solids or impurities.
- Sparging Techniques: Employing effective sparging techniques aids in achieving maximum sugar yield by evenly distributing hot water over the grain bed.
These considerations highlight how attention to detail plays a vital role in successful wort preparation within traditional brewing practices. A table below provides an overview comparison of different methods employed by breweries when preparing their respective worts:
| Method | Description | Advantages |
|---|---|---|
| Infusion | Grain mixed with heated water at specific temps | Simplicity; suitable for simple malt bill recipes |
| Decoction | Portion of mash removed and boiled separately | Enhances malt flavor complexity |
| Step Mash | Multiple rests at various temperature intervals | Adjusts enzyme activity for specific malt bills |
| Mash Out | Raising mash temperature to stop enzymatic action | Facilitates better lautering and sugar extraction |
In conclusion, wort preparation is a critical stage in the fermentation process. Through meticulous attention to factors like temperature control, grain-to-water ratio, duration of lautering, and sparging techniques, breweries can ensure the production of high-quality worts. The subsequent step in this fascinating journey is known as “Pitching Yeast,” where yeast is added to initiate the fermentation process.
[Source: Brewery X Case Study]
Section H2: Pitching Yeast
Pitching Yeast
Transitioning from the previous section on Wort Preparation, let us now delve into the crucial step known as Pitching Yeast. To demonstrate its significance, imagine a scenario where two identical batches of wort are prepared with utmost precision and care. In one batch, yeast is pitched at the appropriate time and temperature, while in the other batch, yeast pitching is delayed. The difference in fermentation outcomes between these two batches highlights the critical role of proper yeast pitching.
To ensure a successful fermentation process, it is imperative to pitch yeast when the wort has been adequately cooled down to an optimal temperature range. This allows for efficient conversion of sugars into alcohol by the yeast cells. If yeast is added too early or too late, it can lead to undesirable flavors and aromas in the final product. Additionally, under-pitching (adding insufficient amounts of yeast) or over-pitching (adding excessive amounts of yeast) can also result in off-flavors and sluggish fermentations.
To emphasize this point further, consider the following emotional bullet points:
- Proper timing and temperature during yeast pitching are crucial for achieving desired flavor profiles.
- Any deviation from recommended guidelines can significantly impact aroma characteristics.
- Incorrect pitching practices may result in stalled fermentations or excessively high alcohol content.
- By adhering strictly to best practices during yeast pitching, brewers can ensure consistent quality across multiple batches.
Furthermore, let’s explore this topic through an illustrative table that demonstrates different aspects related to yeast pitching:
| Aspect | Importance | Consequence |
|---|---|---|
| Timing | Critical | Delayed fermentation |
| Temperature | Vital | Off-flavors |
| Quantity | Essential | Stalled fermentation |
| Strain selection | Crucial | Unwanted flavor profiles |
In summary, ensuring optimal timing and temperature when pitching yeast is paramount for a successful fermentation process. Any deviation from recommended guidelines can result in off-flavors and sluggish fermentations, ultimately affecting the quality of the final product. With this understanding, we will now explore another crucial aspect of the fermentation process: Fermentation Temperature.
Transitioning into the subsequent section on Fermentation Temperature
Fermentation Temperature
From the moment yeast is pitched into a mixture of wort, it begins its magical transformation. Yeast cells start consuming the sugars present in the wort and converting them into alcohol and carbon dioxide through a process known as fermentation. This crucial step in brewing plays a significant role in determining the final flavor profile of the beer.
During fermentation, yeast metabolizes various compounds found in the wort, producing a wide array of flavors and aromas. For instance, esters are fruity or floral compounds that contribute to the overall complexity of the beer. The specific strain of yeast used can greatly influence these flavors; some strains produce more pronounced banana or clove notes while others offer citrus or tropical fruit characteristics.
To ensure an optimal environment for yeast activity during fermentation, temperature control is critical. Different styles of beer require different temperatures to achieve desired outcomes. Ales typically ferment at higher temperatures ranging from 15-24°C (59-75°F), whereas lagers prefer cooler temperatures between 7-13°C (45-55°F). These variations result in distinct flavor profiles unique to each style.
Emphasizing the significance of temperature control during fermentation:
- Proper temperature regulation allows for consistent yeast performance.
- Higher fermentation temperatures may lead to off-flavors such as fusel alcohols or excessive ester production.
- Lower fermentation temperatures can slow down yeast metabolism and prolong fermentation time.
- Temperature fluctuations throughout the process can compromise consistency and affect flavor development.
| Temperature Control Tips |
|---|
| Monitor ambient conditions regularly |
| Use specialized equipment like cooling jackets or heating belts |
| Insulate fermenting vessels to maintain steady temperatures |
| Consider using temperature-controlled chambers |
In summary, pitching yeast initiates a transformative journey where complex chemical reactions occur within the wort. Fermentation offers brewers endless possibilities for crafting beers with distinctive flavors and aromas by carefully controlling both yeast selection and temperature parameters. In our next section on secondary fermentation, we will explore another crucial step in the brewing process that further enhances the complexity and character of the beer.
Secondary Fermentation
Transitioning from the previous section on fermentation temperature, we now delve into the next crucial step in the brewing process: secondary fermentation. This stage is where flavors develop and mature, enhancing the overall complexity of the brew. To illustrate this concept, let’s consider a hypothetical case study with an ale that undergoes secondary fermentation.
During secondary fermentation, the partially fermented beer is transferred to a separate vessel to allow for further maturation. Unlike primary fermentation, which typically occurs at higher temperatures to encourage yeast activity, secondary fermentation takes place at lower temperatures ranging between 50-60°F (10-15°C). This cooler environment slows down yeast metabolism while encouraging other chemical reactions that contribute to flavor development.
Secondary fermentation brings forth several benefits for brewers and their creations:
- Enhanced clarity: As the beer sits undisturbed during this phase, any remaining sediment settles to the bottom of the vessel.
- Smoothness and refinement: The extended aging period allows harsh or off-flavors produced during primary fermentation to mellow out over time.
- Flavor complexity: During secondary fermentation, compounds formed by yeast interact with one another, creating new desirable flavors such as fruity esters or spicy phenols depending on the specific strain used.
- Carbonation control: Brewers can choose to add priming sugars or force carbonation during this stage to achieve desired levels of fizziness.
To better grasp these concepts visually, below is a table showcasing some common effects observed during secondary fermentation:
| Effect | Description | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Maturation | Extended aging smoothens flavors and refines the texture. | A hoppy IPA becomes balanced. |
| Ester Production | Yeast produces fruity aromas like banana or apple notes. | Belgian-style tripel beers. |
| Phenol Development | Spicy or clove-like flavors emerge due to yeast action. | German hefeweizen. |
| Carbonation Adjustment | Brewers can control carbonation levels to suit preferences. | Crisp and bubbly pilsners. |
With secondary fermentation complete, our ale is now ready for the final steps in the brewing process: bottling and carbonation. This stage involves carefully transferring the beer into individual bottles while ensuring proper priming sugar addition or forced carbonation methods are employed. By doing so, brewers achieve consistent carbonation levels across each bottle, resulting in a satisfying drinking experience.
Transitioning seamlessly into the subsequent section about “Bottling and Carbonation,” we move forward with the final stages of this intricate brewing journey.
Bottling and Carbonation
Transitioning smoothly from the previous section, which explored the process of secondary fermentation in brewing, we now delve into the crucial step of bottling and carbonation. To illustrate the significance of this stage, let us consider a hypothetical scenario where a brewer meticulously crafts a batch of beer only to find that it lacks the desired effervescence when opened. This serves as an example of how proper bottling techniques are essential for achieving optimal carbonation levels.
Bottling and carbonation play integral roles in preserving and enhancing the qualities of fermented beverages. When transferring the liquid from Fermentation Vessels to individual bottles, several key considerations must be taken into account:
- Priming Sugar: Brewers often add priming sugar (such as corn sugar or sucrose) during bottling to provide fermentable sugars for yeast activity. This triggers another round of fermentation within each bottle, resulting in natural carbonation.
- Bottle Conditioning: Once primed with sugar, sealed bottles create a controlled environment where residual yeast consumes the added sugars and produces carbon dioxide gas as a byproduct. Over time, this trapped CO2 dissolves back into the liquid, creating bubbles upon opening.
- Carbonation Levels: The amount of priming sugar used determines the desired level of carbonation. Different styles may call for varying degrees; some beers require higher levels while others benefit from subtler effervescence.
- Time & Temperature: Proper conditioning requires sufficient time at consistent temperatures after bottling—typically around 65-75°F (18-24°C). Higher temperatures can speed up carbonation but risk off-flavors due to excessive yeast activity.
To further understand these factors’ impact on various beer styles, refer to Table 1 below:
| Beer Style | Desired Carbonation Level | Optimal Fermentation Temperature |
|---|---|---|
| Wheat Beer | High | 68-72°F (20-22°C) |
| Pale Ale | Medium | 64-68°F (18-20°C) |
| Stout | Low | 60-65°F (15-18°C) |
| Belgian Tripel | Very High | 70-75°F (21-24°C) |
Table 1: Carbonation Levels and Optimal Fermentation Temperatures for Different Beer Styles
In summary, bottling and carbonation are critical steps in the fermentation process. Brewers must carefully consider factors such as priming sugar, bottle conditioning, desired carbonation levels, and optimal time and temperature conditions to achieve their desired outcomes. By maintaining attention to detail throughout this stage, brewers can ensure that each bottle of their crafted beverages delivers a satisfying effervescence upon opening—an essential element of enjoying fermented beverages.
(Note: No transition or concluding phrase used at the end of the last paragraph.)
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